Author name: brogenevsolution.com

brogen autonomous vehicle chassis (1)
Autonomous Vehicles, Technologies

Case Study: Customized Autonomous Vehicle Chassis for Agricultural Applications

Case Study: Customized Autonomous Vehicle Chassis for Agricultural Applications Autonomous driving technology is rapidly transforming traditional industries, and agriculture is no exception. At the heart of this transformation lies the Brogen autonomous vehicle chassis, a highly adaptable and production-ready platform designed to meet the unique demands of modern farming. In this case study, we explore how Brogen delivered a tailor-made autonomous vehicle chassis solution, empowering smarter, more efficient farming through innovation in vehicle architecture, systems integration, and rapid deployment. Solving Real-World Challenges in Agricultural Automation Agricultural environments are inherently complex. Unlike predictable urban roads, farmland often features uneven terrain, mud, slopes, and changing weather conditions. To meet these challenges head-on, Brogen’s engineering team worked closely with an autonomous farming vehicle developer to co-create a chassis solution based on our OEW1 platform. Engineering Tailored to the Field After an in-depth analysis of the application environment, we re-engineered key aspects of the autonomous vehicle chassis to support reliable autonomous performance under rugged conditions: Optimized chassis frame for shock resistance and structural rigidity on bumpy soil and inclines Adaptive suspension system to ensure ground contact and ride stability Precision-tuned drive system to handle low-speed torque requirements and variable traction Enhanced sealing and protection against dust, water, and agricultural chemicals These enhancements ensured that the autonomous agricultural vehicle could navigate through farmlands efficiently, safely, and with minimal maintenance. From Concept to Deployment – Fast and Flexible In autonomous vehicle development, project speed and flexibility are often decisive. Brogen’s R&D team, with strong expertise in hardware and embedded software, worked in close coordination with the client’s engineering team to deliver: Rapid prototyping and customization of the chassis hardware Technical support during integration and testing Full-stack support covering vehicle structure, electronics, software, component sourcing, and validation Our streamlined development process enabled the project to move from design to on-field deployment in record time—demonstrating our platform’s strength as a fast-to-deploy, reliable autonomous vehicle chassis for agricultural automation. Real-World Performance The customized OEW1-based agricultural vehicle has now entered active field operation, proving its reliability through extensive testing and real-world performance in diverse agricultural environments. Key benefits delivered to the client include: Reduced labor costs through autonomous operation Improved crop yield and efficiency via consistent vehicle paths and precision control Scalability for different farm sizes and crop types using the same flexible chassis base One-Stop Intelligent Autonomous Vehicle Chassis Development We are more than a chassis supplier—we are a full-scope technology partner. From concept to deployment, we provide end-to-end support for autonomous vehicle builders: Full autonomous vehicle structure and electrical system design Embedded software development Component sourcing and material selection Testing, certification, and validation Manufacturing and system integration With our customized development services, clients gain access to robust, production-ready intelligent chassis platforms that allow them to stay ahead in a rapidly evolving autonomous driving industry. Proven Use Cases Across Industries Brogen chassis-based autonomous vehicles have demonstrated outstanding performance in a wide range of real-world scenarios: At a major courier hub, autonomous delivery vehicles run day and night between communities, with peak daily delivery volumes exceeding 14,000 parcels—3.6x more efficient than human couriers. A retail chain’s restocking fleet reduced fresh food loss to just 8% using ultra-efficient autonomous vehicles. In an international supply chain upgrade project, OEW7-powered vehicles are supporting a leading Asian retail group’s automated warehouse operations. Other Solutions – OEW7 Platform Highlights OEW7 is a next-generation, modular autonomous vehicle chassis solution designed for low- and medium-speed mobility across logistics, agriculture, retail, sanitation, and factory automation. Built around a scalable skateboard architecture, it empowers OEMs and solution providers to launch new vehicle applications within just 30 days—a 75% reduction in development time compared to traditional approaches. Technical Highlights: Max Speed: 40 km/h (adjustable) Max Gradeability: 20% Payload Capacity: 1000 kg CAN 2.0 Control Interface Operating Temperature: -30°C to 60°C EMC-compliant Fast-charging capable (complies with national standards) Smart Operations: OTA (Over-the-Air) updates Remote diagnostics Real-time global data feedback and monitoring Reliability: Validated through 10,000 km of reinforced rough-road testing EMC automotive-grade compliance TÜV Rheinland “Low-Speed Autonomous Driving Performance” China-Mark certified Performance: Drive-by-wire system response time: <100 ms Includes single-wheel anti-slip escape, 4-wheel speed sensors, and TPMS Redundant control and an intelligent thermal battery management system Looking to accelerate your autonomous vehicle project? Learn more here to explore customized autonomous vehicle chassis solutions: https://brogenevsolution.com/autonomous-vehicle-chassis/ You can also contact us via contact@BrogenEVSolution.com or use the contact form below. We usually respond within 2 business days. Contact Us Get in touch with us by sending us an email, using the Whatsapp number below, or filling in the form below. We usually reply within 2 business days. Email: contact@brogenevsolution.com Respond within 1 business day Whatsapp: +8619352173376 Business hours: 9 am to 6 pm, GMT+8, Mon. to Fri. LinkedIn channel Follow us for regular updates > YouTube channel Ev systems introduction & industry insights > ContactFill in the form and we will get in touch with you within 2 business days.Please enable JavaScript in your browser to complete this form.Please enable JavaScript in your browser to complete this form. Name * FirstLast Work Email *Company Name *Your Project Type *– Please select –Car, SUV, MPVBus, coach, trainLCV (pickup truck, light-duty truck, etc.)HCV (heavy-duty truck, tractor, trailer, concrete mixer, etc.)Construction machinery (excavator, forklift, crane, bulldozer, loader, etc.)Vessel, boat, ship, yacht, etc.Others (please write it in the note)Your Interested Solutions *– Please select –Motore-AxleBatteryChassisAuxiliary inverterOBC / DCDC / PDUAir brake compressorEPS / EHPS / SbW / eRCBBTMSOthers (please write it in the note)Do you have other contact info? (Whatsapp, Wechat, Skype, etc.)Please introduce your project and your request here. * Checkbox * I consent to receive updates on products and events from Brogen, and give consent based on Brogen’s Privacy Policy. Submit

europe electric truck
Industry Insight

Europe Electric Truck Market 2024–2025: Growth Trends, Leaders & Outlook

Europe Electric Truck Market: 2024 Review & 2025 Outlook The Europe electric truck market is expanding rapidly as climate policies tighten and the transport sector shifts toward zero-emission vehicles. In 2024, the European Union’s updated CO₂ regulations for heavy-duty vehicles accelerated this transition. Manufacturers must now cut emissions by 45% by 2030, 65% by 2035, and 90% by 2040, compared to 2019 levels. As a result, both OEMs and fleet operators are moving quickly to electrify their fleets. In 2024, approximately 3,400 new zero-emission trucks (ZETs) were registered across Europe — a 42% increase compared to 2023, according to data from the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT). Despite this growth, ZETs still accounted for just 1.2% of all new truck registrations, indicating massive potential for future growth. Top Markets for Europe Electric Truck Adoption Countries leading the Europe electric truck transition include Germany, France, and the Netherlands — together, they made up nearly 90% of all new ZET registrations in 2024. Adoption rates by country: Netherlands: 6.5% of new truck registrations were electric Sweden: 3.6% Germany: 2.4% France: 2.2% In terms of manufacturers, Volvo, Renault, and Mercedes-Benz led the market. Volvo’s electric truck registrations alone grew by 51% year-over-year. Cost Trends and Charging Infrastructure Although electric trucks still carry a higher upfront cost than diesel models, prices are gradually falling. The newly released Mercedes-Benz eActros 600, featuring a 600 kWh battery and a driving range of over 500 km, is now priced below €300,000. To further support growth in the Europe electric truck segment: Several EU countries offer purchase incentives for zero-emission trucks. In Germany, CO₂-based road tolls now apply to diesel trucks, while zero-emission trucks are exempt from tolls for five years. However, the lack of charging infrastructure remains a major barrier. By 2030, Europe will need around 900,000 private depot chargers for electric trucks, requiring an estimated €20 billion in investment. Sustainability Regulations Accelerate Demand The new EU Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD) also plays a key role. Large companies are now required to disclose full-scope emissions, including transportation emissions from logistics partners. This creates additional pressure on fleet operators to switch to zero-emission vehicles. What’s Next for the Europe Electric Truck Market in 2025? The Europe electric truck industry is expected to keep growing in 2025, driven by: More vehicle model launches from major OEMs Falling battery and production costs New government support policies Increased pressure from corporate emission targets Collaboration between governments, manufacturers, and logistics companies will be essential to scaling infrastructure and reducing total cost of ownership. The journey to a greener freight future has begun — and Europe is leading the way. How Brogen Empowers Europe Electric Truck Projects At Brogen, we specialize in tailored EV solutions for commercial vehicles, with a proven track record of supporting OEMs and truck manufacturers worldwide. Our EV system portfolio includes: High-performance e-drive systems (motors or e-axles) Customized battery system (battery packs, BMS, BTMS) Onboard chargers (OBC), DC/DC converters, and auxiliary inverters Electric power steering systems (EPS) We’ve helped truck builders in Europe accelerate their EV programs — from 8- to 18-ton platforms and more, municipal vehicles, logistics fleets, and more. With deep experience in system customization, CAN protocol adaptation, and high-voltage architecture design, our team ensures fast development cycles and smooth mass production readiness. Why Partner with Brogen? Flexible engineering support tailored to your chassis and region Reliable supply chain and quality-assured manufacturing Multilingual team for seamless global collaboration (English, German, French, Japanese, Korean) Proven experience in EV deployment across 30+ countries If you’re building the next generation of Europe electric trucks, we’re here to power your project — from concept to road. Contact Us Get in touch with us by sending us an email, using the Whatsapp number below, or filling in the form below. We usually reply within 2 business days. Email: contact@brogenevsolution.com Respond within 1 business day Whatsapp: +8619352173376 Business hours: 9 am to 6 pm, GMT+8, Mon. to Fri. LinkedIn channel Follow us for regular updates > YouTube channel Ev systems introduction & industry insights > ContactFill in the form and we will get in touch with you within 2 business days.Please enable JavaScript in your browser to complete this form.Please enable JavaScript in your browser to complete this form. Name * FirstLast Work Email *Company Name *Your Project Type *– Please select –Car, SUV, MPVBus, coach, trainLCV (pickup truck, light-duty truck, etc.)HCV (heavy-duty truck, tractor, trailer, concrete mixer, etc.)Construction machinery (excavator, forklift, crane, bulldozer, loader, etc.)Vessel, boat, ship, yacht, etc.Others (please write it in the note)Your Interested Solutions *– Please select –Motore-AxleBatteryChassisAuxiliary inverterOBC / DCDC / PDUAir brake compressorEPS / EHPS / SbW / eRCBBTMSOthers (please write it in the note)Do you have other contact info? (Whatsapp, Wechat, Skype, etc.)Please introduce your project and your request here. * Checkbox * I consent to receive updates on products and events from Brogen, and give consent based on Brogen’s Privacy Policy. Submit

electric truck
Industry Insight

Vehicle Electrification: A Practical Guide for Companies Entering the EV Industry

Vehicle Electrification: A Practical Guide for Companies Entering the EV Industry As global regulations tighten and demand for sustainable transport rises, vehicle electrification is no longer just a trend — it’s a business imperative. More companies across automotive, logistics, technology, and mobility sectors are stepping into the electric vehicle (EV) market to stay competitive and relevant. Whether you’re an OEM, a vehicle brand, a startup, or a tech company exploring new mobility solutions, launching an electric vehicle program involves far more than selecting a motor or battery. Proper preparation is critical to ensure smoother development, faster supplier communication, and a successful product launch. To help your team get started on the right foot, we’ve created a Vehicle Electrification Preparation Guide that outlines the key considerations, roles, and technical elements you need before engaging with EV system suppliers. Why Preparation Matters in Vehicle Electrification Projects Companies often underestimate the system complexity of EVs and the depth of collaboration required with component suppliers. Without a clear understanding of your project goals and technical setup, communication gaps can lead to project delays, mismatched components, or failed pilot builds. Proper preparation helps your company: Clarify your vehicle electrification architecture early Communicate effectively with EV system suppliers Minimize technical misunderstandings Accelerate time to prototype and production Align with compliance and safety standards from the begining Key Elements for a Successful Vehicle Electrification Project 1. Build a Capable Electrification Team Even if you’re not a traditional OEM, the following roles form the essential foundation for initiating an EV project: EV System Architect: Defines the overall vehicle architecture, including platform voltage, drive system, battery capacity, and integration strategy. Electrical/High Voltage Engineer: Designs the electrical network, including communication systems, relay protection, and interfaces for high-voltage systems. Software/Control Engineer: Manages the integration of VCU, MCU, and Battery Management Systems (BMS). Mechanical/Layout Engineer: Focuses on the integration of e-axles, motors, and batteries, ensuring efficient layout and thermal management. Project Manager/Procurement: Coordinates the project timeline, supplier engagement, and procurement processes to meet deadlines. Compliance/Safety Engineer: Ensures adherence to industry regulations and safety standards for various markets. 2. Understand the Basics of Vehicle Electrification Architecture A well-planned system architecture is the foundation of any EV project. Understanding each core system helps ensure better design decisions and component selection. Key components to consider: Battery System: Voltage platforms: Common standards include 350V / 540V / 800V Rated capacity (Ah): Examples – 105Ah / 280Ah / 304Ah Charge/discharge rates: 1C / 2C / 3C, etc. Energy capacity: Based on driving range goals (e.g., 100 km / 200 km / 300 km) Cooling: Air-cooled or liquid-cooled Installation: Pack dimensions, mounting method, placement Charging protocols: GB/T, CCS2, CCS1, CHAdeMO, etc. Electric Drive System (e-Axle / Motor) Power & Torque Matching: Output requirements in kW and Nm Speed Ratio / Tire Match: Gear reduction ratio, tire size Mounting Type: Flange, suspension, etc. Differential Options: Mechanical or electronic differential Control Systems (VCU / MCU / BMS) CAN Communication Architecture Vehicle Control Logic Readiness Fault Diagnostics & Redundancy VCU Development: Whether in-house or needing supplier support Auxiliary Systems & Supporting Modules OBC (Onboard Charger), DC/DC Converter, PDU (Power Distribution Unit) Auxiliary e-Drive Units: EPS pumps, A/C compressors, water pumps, etc. Regulatory and Safety Standards IP rating (e.g., IP67, IP69K) EMC requirements UN38.3 transport certification Battery-related regional certifications (E-mark, CE, etc.) 3. What Project Information Should Be Prepared? (Checklist) To help EV system suppliers provide the most accurate recommendations and solutions, prepare these key items in advance: Company Info: Company name, contact person, contact details, project overview Vehicle Specs: Vehicle type (e.g., light truck, tractor), curb and GVW, top speed, range target, gradeability, etc. Installation Data: Chassis drawing, space for e-axle, preliminary battery layout (CAD) Electrical Plan: Voltage platform (e.g., 540V), existing VCU status, need for supplier control systems Certification Needs: Target countries/regions and relevant standards (E-mark, CE, UN38.3, etc.) Project Timeline: Prototype and test plans, SOP date, estimated procurement volume 4. Standard Engagement Process with EV System Suppliers To ensure clear communication and efficient progress, we recommend the following three-step process: Step 1: Initial Project Discussion Customer provides: Application background (e.g., city logistics, port tractor, mining transport) Target market & required certifications Basic vehicle information (type, curb & gross weight, dimensions) Development schedule: A-sample, B-sample, SOP timeline Supplier provides: Preliminary system suggestions (e.g., e-axle, battery voltage platform) Relevant case studies and delivery lead times System options list Step 2: Technical Alignment Customer prepares: Detailed vehicle specs (axle load, weight, top speed, range, slope grade, operating profile, tire size) Installation diagrams, battery layout, wire harness routing Control logic planning, communication protocols for components (VCU, etc.) Supplier provides: Component datasheets and technical parameters CAN protocol documentation and control logic suggestions Installation guidelines, remote/onsite support plan Step 3: Prototype Build & Mass Production Readiness Customer coordinates: Prototype build schedule, assembly capabilities, motor controller interface Software integration between internal team and supplier Testing and certification resources Supplier supports with: Prototype delivery, debugging tools, installation manuals Remote debugging or onsite support Software packages and compliance documents 5. Recommended Documentation To help EV system suppliers provide the most accurate and effective solutions, we recommend including the following information in your inquiry to ensure a clear understanding of your project requirements. Vehicle Specs Sheet:  Dimensions, speed, axle loads, performance targets Drive System Form: Motor/e-axle usage, speed ratio, power target Battery Requirement Form: Range, capacity, voltage platform, cooling method Control System Form: VCU availability, integration requirements Packaging Layout Template: e-axle and battery pack layout drawings 6. What Supplier Capabilities Should You Evaluate? System Selection Support: Preliminary proposals, drawings, CAN docs, remote debugging assistance Project Management Support: Prototype coordination, engineering change handling, customized development (CAN/interface adaptation) Product Portfolio Capability: Complete system offerings: e-axle, motor, battery, VCU, OBC, DC/DC, etc. Global Delivery Experience: Familiar with certification processes, delivery to over 30 countries Training and Documentation: White papers, market insights, technical guides, FAQ documents Conclusion Electrification is a complex, cross-disciplinary process that involves system selection, control logic development, mechanical integration, and regulatory compliance. With this guide, we aim to help you

electric heavy trucks
Heavy Transport, Industry Insight

What Will Be the Mainstream Battery Capacity of Electric Heavy Trucks in 2025?

What Will Be the Mainstream Battery Capacity of Electric Heavy Trucks in 2025? In 2024, the electric heavy truck market has seen unprecedented changes. Fierce industry competition, exploration of long-haul transportation, significant price drops, the rise of large-battery electric heavy trucks, and the resurgence of fast-charging trucks have all shaped the current landscape. Among these changes, the sharp decline in vehicle prices has left the deepest impact. More importantly, it has accelerated the large-scale adoption of electric heavy trucks with higher battery capacities — a trend that is fundamentally reshaping fleet operations. The substantial reduction in purchase costs has opened the door for the widespread deployment of electric heavy trucks equipped with large-capacity battery packs. While electric heavy trucks with smaller battery capacities have seen a relative decline in market share, their sales continue to grow steadily. They remain an essential part of the market and are far from being phased out. According to the Research, the battery capacity of electric heavy trucks currently available on the market varies significantly — ranging from 282 kWh to 729 kWh. This diversity provides operators with more choices, but also raises an important question: How should fleet operators choose the right electric heavy truck configuration for their specific application scenarios? (Note: This article refers to electric heavy trucks used for legally compliant, standard-load transportation.) Operational Scenarios Define Battery Capacity Requirements After several years of development, electric heavy trucks have been primarily applied in short-distance transport scenarios, such as port drayage, mining logistics, and regional distribution. However, the industry is actively testing electric heavy trucks in long-haul and trunk line transportation, leading to increasingly diverse and complex operational demands. One of the most widely discussed topics remains driving range — a factor directly linked to battery capacity. While a higher battery capacity provides a longer range, it also increases vehicle weight, reducing payload capacity and potentially affecting profitability. For instance, a 300 kWh battery pack typically weighs around 1,875 kg. Including the battery frame and auxiliary structures, the total battery system weight easily exceeds 2 tons. (This calculation assumes an energy density of 160 Wh/kg, meaning approximately 6.25 kg per kWh.) Under legal load restrictions, the heavier the battery, the lower the cargo capacity — posing a challenge for operators to balance battery size and transport efficiency. Example 1: Short-Haul Urban Logistics — Prioritizing Light Weight and Flexibility In urban logistics scenarios, where electric heavy trucks operate within a city radius of 100-150 km, smaller battery capacities are often more practical. For example, a 350 kWh battery pack provides sufficient range for daily operations while minimizing additional vehicle weight. A logistics company operating within a port area in Shanghai chose electric heavy trucks equipped with 350 kWh batteries. These trucks focus on high-frequency, short-distance transport tasks, benefiting from fast-charging stations deployed within the port zone. The lighter battery system allows the trucks to maximize payload capacity while maintaining operational flexibility. Example 2: Long-Haul Trunk Line Transportation — Embracing Large-Capacity Batteries For long-haul transport scenarios, where electric heavy trucks must travel 300-400 km or more between charging opportunities, larger battery capacities become essential. In northern China, a coal transport fleet has adopted electric heavy trucks equipped with 729 kWh battery packs. These vehicles operate on a dedicated trunk line of approximately 350 km between two mining sites and a port terminal. The large-capacity batteries ensure sufficient range under heavy-load conditions and allow for fewer charging interruptions, improving overall transport efficiency. Conclusion: Choosing the Right Battery Capacity for Electric Heavy Trucks Ultimately, the choice of battery capacity for electric heavy trucks depends on the specific operational scenario. Operators must carefully evaluate transport distance, charging infrastructure availability, cargo load requirements, and total cost of ownership. Looking ahead to 2025, it is expected that electric heavy trucks with battery capacities ranging from 350 kWh to 600 kWh will become the mainstream choice for most standard logistics applications. Meanwhile, ultra-large battery systems above 700 kWh will continue to serve specialized long-haul and heavy-load transport needs. With the ongoing advancement of battery technology and the expansion of fast-charging networks, the future of electric heavy trucks looks promising, offering operators more efficient, sustainable, and cost-effective transport solutions. Looking for a customized EV solution for your electric heavy truck project?Discover here or contact us at contact@BrogenEVSolution.com Contact Us Get in touch with us by sending us an email, using the Whatsapp number below, or filling in the form below. We usually reply within 2 business days. Email: contact@brogenevsolution.com Respond within 1 business day Whatsapp: +8619352173376 Business hours: 9 am to 6 pm, GMT+8, Mon. to Fri. LinkedIn channel Follow us for regular updates > YouTube channel Ev systems introduction & industry insights > ContactFill in the form and we will get in touch with you within 2 business days.Please enable JavaScript in your browser to complete this form.Please enable JavaScript in your browser to complete this form. Name * FirstLast Work Email *Company Name *Your Project Type *– Please select –Car, SUV, MPVBus, coach, trainLCV (pickup truck, light-duty truck, etc.)HCV (heavy-duty truck, tractor, trailer, concrete mixer, etc.)Construction machinery (excavator, forklift, crane, bulldozer, loader, etc.)Vessel, boat, ship, yacht, etc.Others (please write it in the note)Your Interested Solutions *– Please select –Motore-AxleBatteryChassisAuxiliary inverterOBC / DCDC / PDUAir brake compressorEPS / EHPS / SbW / eRCBBTMSOthers (please write it in the note)Do you have other contact info? (Whatsapp, Wechat, Skype, etc.)Please introduce your project and your request here. * Checkbox * I consent to receive updates on products and events from Brogen, and give consent based on Brogen’s Privacy Policy. Submit

electric truck
Heavy Transport, Industry Insight

Tips for Choosing the Right Electric Truck

Tips for Choosing the Right Electric Truck As the adoption of electric trucks continues to rise, their economic and environmental advantages are becoming increasingly evident across various use cases. More and more logistics companies are now considering a transition from traditional diesel-powered trucks to electric alternatives. However, shifting to electric trucks is not merely a matter of replacing diesel engines with electric motors. It requires a holistic transformation that includes considerations around battery range, charging infrastructure, operational strategies, and business model adjustments. According to industry research, many fleet operators are still in the exploratory phase of their electrification journey. The most common questions they face are:How do we select the right electric truck?What battery capacity is appropriate for our operations?This article provides a brief analysis of these two critical questions. 1. Understanding Two Key Energy Consumption Metrics: Technical vs. Economic Energy efficiency is a key factor for logistics companies when choosing a truck. In the diesel era, manufacturers emphasized fuel economy. In the electric era, the focus has naturally shifted to electricity consumption. However, the energy consumption figures provided by electric truck manufacturers are often based on short-term, controlled testing conditions—what can be called “laboratory data”—and may differ significantly from real-world usage. Before purchasing an electric truck, it’s essential to distinguish between two types of energy consumption metrics: ● Technical Metric (kWh/km) This refers to the energy used per kilometer to drive the vehicle and is the most commonly advertised figure by OEMs. Under standard test conditions—such as on level roads with balanced loading—many electric heavy-duty trucks achieve an average of 1.5 kWh per kilometer.However, this figure typically excludes the energy consumed by auxiliary systems such as thermal management, air conditioning, battery heating or cooling systems, and more. In real-world scenarios, especially during northern winters, the actual range of electric trucks can drop to only 60% of what is achievable in summer, meaning energy consumption increases significantly. Therefore, the technical metric is more of an idealized efficiency indicator that reflects the performance of the motor and drivetrain under optimal conditions, without accounting for real-life variables. ● Economic Metric (kWh per Ton) This is a more realistic metric for fleet operations. Rather than measuring energy per kilometer, it calculates energy use based on the amount of cargo transported—specifically, the total electricity consumed divided by the total tonnage hauled. This “ton-kWh” metric includes both driving energy and the power consumed by auxiliary systems. For logistics companies, focusing on this economic metric allows for a more accurate assessment of a vehicle’s real-world energy efficiency and operating cost, making it a more valuable reference for decision-making. It’s also important to remember that energy consumption can vary significantly depending on operational context, driving habits, road conditions, and climate. All of these should be considered when selecting a vehicle. 2. Is Bigger Battery Capacity Always Better? Once energy consumption is well understood, the next key question for logistics companies is: How much battery capacity do we really need?Battery capacity directly determines the driving range and operational efficiency of an electric heavy-duty truck. Selecting the right battery specification for specific transport scenarios is critical for fleet operators. With technological advancements and declining raw material costs, battery options on the market have become increasingly diverse. Capacities have grown from 282 kWh just a few years ago to 350 kWh, 423 kWh, and even 500–800 kWh packs are now available. But does bigger always mean better when it comes to batteries? ● The Trade-offs of Larger Battery Packs Admittedly, a larger battery pack can significantly extend a truck’s driving range and reduce the frequency of charging, improving operational flexibility. This naturally appeals to many logistics operators looking to maximize efficiency. However, when choosing battery capacity, companies must carefully balance several factors — including actual operational needs, cost budgets, and compatibility with available charging infrastructure. ● Key Considerations: If local charging facilities cannot support fast charging for large-capacity batteries, it may hinder the vehicle’s turnaround efficiency — offsetting the benefits of a larger battery. Heavier batteries increase the truck’s curb weight, reducing its payload capacity and, in turn, affecting the profitability of the fleet. For example, current battery technology adds approximately 5 to 6 kg of weight per additional kilowatt-hour. Comparing a 282 kWh battery to a 423 kWh battery, the weight difference exceeds 700 kg. If a truck operates two trips per day, this weight penalty translates to a reduction of 1.5 tons of cargo capacity daily. Over the course of a year (assuming 300 working days), the lost payload could amount to 450 tons — a significant profit loss that logistics companies cannot ignore. Moreover, larger battery packs drive up the initial vehicle purchase cost, placing additional financial pressure on logistics operators in the early stages of electrification. Final Thoughts Whether evaluating the true energy consumption of an electric truck or selecting the appropriate battery capacity, logistics companies must consider these decisions within the context of their specific transport scenarios and operational requirements. By taking a comprehensive approach — weighing energy efficiency, operational demands, infrastructure readiness, and cost-effectiveness — companies can strike the optimal balance between economic benefit and operational efficiency, paving the way for sustainable fleet development in the electric era. Contact Us Get in touch with us by sending us an email, using the Whatsapp number below, or filling in the form below. We usually reply within 2 business days. Email: contact@brogenevsolution.com Respond within 1 business day Whatsapp: +8619352173376 Business hours: 9 am to 6 pm, GMT+8, Mon. to Fri. LinkedIn channel Follow us for regular updates > YouTube channel Ev systems introduction & industry insights > ContactFill in the form and we will get in touch with you within 2 business days.Please enable JavaScript in your browser to complete this form.Please enable JavaScript in your browser to complete this form. Name * FirstLast Work Email *Company Name *Your Project Type *– Please select –Car, SUV, MPVBus, coach, trainLCV (pickup truck, light-duty truck, etc.)HCV (heavy-duty truck, tractor, trailer, concrete mixer, etc.)Construction machinery (excavator, forklift, crane, bulldozer,

Brogen e-powertrain-e-axle
Industry Insight

What Is The Difference Between Axle And E-Axle?

What’s the Difference Between a Traditional Drive Axle and an E-Axle? As the electric vehicle (EV) industry accelerates globally, e-axle technology is playing an increasingly vital role in the development of next-generation commercial vehicles. But how does an e-axle differ from a traditional drive axle, and why is it becoming a key component in electric mobility solutions? In this article, we’ll explore the key differences between traditional drive axles and e-axles, their working principles, and the benefits of adopting e-axle systems in commercial electric vehicles. What is a Traditional Drive Axle? A traditional drive axle is a critical component in fuel-powered vehicles, commonly used in internal combustion engine (ICE) systems. It transfers engine power to the wheels through a mechanical connection involving a transmission system, driveshaft, and differential. Traditional drive axle systems have a mature design with highly standardized components, offering reliability and durability in heavy-load and challenging working conditions. Working Principle of Traditional Drive Axle The engine generates power → The transmission adjusts speed and torque → The driveshaft transfers the power to the axle → The axle drives the wheels. What is an E-Axle? An e-axle (electric axle) integrates the electric motor, reduction gearbox, and differential into a single compact unit, directly driving the vehicle’s wheels. This integration simplifies the powertrain, eliminates the need for a traditional transmission or driveshaft, and optimizes the vehicle’s overall structure. By reducing the number of mechanical components, the e-axle not only lowers vehicle weight but also frees up valuable chassis space — allowing for larger battery packs and extended driving range in electric commercial vehicles. Working Principle of E-Axle Unlike traditional drive axles, an e-axle uses an electric motor to control wheel rotation directly. The vehicle’s speed, torque, acceleration, and braking are managed electronically through an advanced motor control system, enabling smooth and precise driving performance. Advantages of Traditional Drive Axles Cost-Effective: Lower manufacturing and replacement costs compared to e-axles. Long Driving Range (Fuel-Based): Refueling is faster and offers longer ranges without dependency on battery charging. Disadvantages of Traditional Drive Axles Complex Operation: Requires gear shifting for acceleration, deceleration, and braking. Environmental Pollution: Relies on fuel combustion, emitting exhaust gases harmful to the environment. Advantages of E-Axle Technology Simplified Operation: No gear shifting is required. Acceleration, deceleration, and braking are all managed through intelligent electric control systems. Improved Energy Efficiency: Reduces power loss through mechanical transmission, maximizing energy utilization. Eco-Friendly: Zero tailpipe emissions, supporting global carbon neutrality goals. Optimized Vehicle Architecture: Saves space and reduces weight, enabling larger battery capacity for extended range. Disadvantages of E-Axle (Current Limitations) Higher Cost: E-axle systems typically have higher upfront development and production costs. Range Limitation (Battery Dependent): The driving range depends on battery capacity and charging infrastructure availability. Conclusion: E-Axle is Shaping the Future of Electric Mobility The rise of e-axle technology marks a significant step forward in the evolution of electric commercial vehicles. By integrating the electric motor, gearbox, and differential, e-axles provide a more compact, efficient, and environmentally friendly solution for modern transportation. As the EV industry continues to grow and battery technology advances, the e-axle is expected to become the standard powertrain solution for commercial electric vehicles, helping manufacturers meet sustainability goals while improving performance and efficiency. Urban Delivery Van, light truck, medium truck Learn More Public Transport For bus, coach, rail metro Learn More Heavy Transport Dump truck, mining truck, trailer Learn More Looking for a customized e-axle solution for your electric commercial vehicle project?Contact us to learn more about our advanced e-axle systems and tailored EV solutions. Contact Us Get in touch with us by sending us an email, using the Whatsapp number below, or filling in the form below. We usually reply within 2 business days. Email: contact@brogenevsolution.com Respond within 1 business day Whatsapp: +8619352173376 Business hours: 9 am to 6 pm, GMT+8, Mon. to Fri. LinkedIn channel Follow us for regular updates > YouTube channel Ev systems introduction & industry insights > ContactFill in the form and we will get in touch with you within 2 business days.Please enable JavaScript in your browser to complete this form.Please enable JavaScript in your browser to complete this form. Name * FirstLast Work Email *Company Name *Your Project Type *– Please select –Car, SUV, MPVBus, coach, trainLCV (pickup truck, light-duty truck, etc.)HCV (heavy-duty truck, tractor, trailer, concrete mixer, etc.)Construction machinery (excavator, forklift, crane, bulldozer, loader, etc.)Vessel, boat, ship, yacht, etc.Others (please write it in the note)Your Interested Solutions *– Please select –Motore-AxleBatteryChassisAuxiliary inverterOBC / DCDC / PDUAir brake compressorEPS / EHPS / SbW / eRCBBTMSOthers (please write it in the note)Do you have other contact info? 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e-powertrain solutions for light cmmercial vehicles
Industry Insight, Light Commercial Vehicles

E-Powertrain Solutions for Light Trucks, Vans, and Pickups: Overview, Analysis, and Key Insights

E-Powertrain Solutions for Light Trucks, Vans, Pickups: Overiview The transition to electric powertrains is revolutionizing the light commercial vehicle (LCV) market, driven by increasing demand for sustainability, regulatory compliance, and operational efficiency. OEMs face critical decisions in selecting the right e-powertrain architecture to balance performance, cost, and integration complexity. This article explores the three primary e-powertrain solutions for LCVs: Central Drive, Centralized Electric Drive Axle, and Distributed Electric Drive, highlighting their advantages, challenges, and applications. 1. Central Drive: The Most Established Conversion Approach The central drive system remains a widely adopted method for converting conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles to electric power. This architecture retains key drivetrain components, such as the driveshaft, rear axle, and suspension, making it a cost-effective transition option. There are two main configurations: Direct Drive: The electric motor directly transmits power to the rear axle via the driveshaft. This solution is widely adopted due to its simplicity and ease of integration. Motor + Transmission/Reducer: The motor’s power is first adjusted by a transmission or reducer before reaching the rear axle, optimizing torque and efficiency. Central Direct Drive Configuration Brogen Direct Drive Motor Solution Integrated Motor+Reducer Configuration Brogen Motor+Reducer+MCU Solution Integrated Motor+Transmission Configuration Brogen Motor+2-Speed AMT Solution While the central direct drive system offers a straightforward path to electrification, it presents certain limitations in terms of efficiency, weight, and cost. Key challenges include: Efficiency Constraints: Although modern electric motors achieve efficiency levels of up to 95%, the mechanical complexity of the central direct drive system introduces additional losses. Weight Considerations: Direct drive configurations require high-torque motors, which are typically larger and heavier, resulting in increased energy consumption. Cost Implications: The need for high-torque motors leads to higher production costs, making it challenging to achieve significant cost reductions. An alternative approach involves integrating the motor with a reducer or multi-speed transmission. This configuration enhances torque multiplication and motor efficiency while reducing overall system weight and cost. Multi-speed transmissions are particularly beneficial for larger commercial vehicles that require a broader torque range. 2. Centralized Electric Drive Axle: An Integrated Powertrain Solution The centralized electric drive axle incorporates the motor directly into the axle assembly, eliminating the driveshaft and enabling improved packaging for the battery system. This architecture is available in three configurations: Parallel-Axis Electric Drive Axle: Utilizes a high-speed cylindrical gear transmission to enhance power density and efficiency while maintaining the structural integrity of conventional axles. Coaxial Electric Drive Axle: Aligns the motor and drive axle to simplify installation and reduce weight, making it an optimal solution for LCVs with a gross vehicle weight of up to 4.5 tons. Independent Suspension Electric Drive Axle: Integrates the motor and reducer within the vehicle frame, optimizing space utilization and improving ride comfort. However, this configuration is typically limited to LCVs under 4.5 tons due to cost and engineering constraints. Parallel-Axis eAxle Configuration Brogen Parallel-Axis eAxle Co-Axial eAxle Configuration Brogen Co-Axial eAxle Independent Suspension eAxle Configuration Brogen Independent Suspension eAxle The centralized electric drive axle offers several advantages, including: Enhanced Efficiency: The elimination of a driveshaft reduces energy losses and increases overall powertrain efficiency. Optimized Chassis Space: The available space allows for a centrally mounted battery pack, improving vehicle weight distribution and safety. Improved Handling: Reduced unsprung mass contributes to better ride comfort and vehicle stability. 3. Distributed Drive: A Next-Generation Powertrain Architecture Distributed drive technology encompasses wheel-end electric drive axles and in-hub motor drive axles, offering greater flexibility in vehicle design and operational efficiency. Wheel-End Electric Drive Axle: Integrates the motor, reducer, and axle into a single unit, eliminating differentials and reducing drivetrain length. This configuration improves efficiency and creates additional underfloor space for battery placement. In-Hub Motor Drive: Embeds the motor directly within the wheel hub, eliminating traditional drivetrain components and maximizing efficiency. However, current technological constraints restrict its application to specific vehicle types such as large buses and low-speed commercial vehicles. Wheel-Side eAxle Configuration In-Hub Motor Configuration Although distributed drive systems offer numerous benefits, they require advanced electronic differential control to ensure precise torque distribution between wheels. When effectively implemented, these systems enhance vehicle performance in high-speed and high-load conditions. Key Trends Influencing the Future of LCV E-Powertrain Development Several industry trends are shaping the advancement of next-generation e-powertrain solutions for LCVs: Greater Adoption of Multi-Speed Transmissions: Improving energy efficiency and torque adaptability across various driving conditions. Increased System Integration: Combining motors, transmissions, and controllers into compact, high-efficiency units to reduce weight and manufacturing costs. Dedicated Electric Chassis Platforms: Purpose-built vehicle architectures designed exclusively for electrification. Lightweight Design Innovations: Implementing advanced materials and structural optimizations to reduce vehicle weight and extend driving range. Brogen specializes in advanced e-powertrain solutions tailored to the evolving requirements of commercial electric vehicle manufacturers. Our integrated three-in-one system, which combines a motor, gearbox, and controller, enhances efficiency while reducing system complexity. Additionally, our centralized and distributed electric axle solutions provide OEMs with optimized powertrain architectures that enhance vehicle performance and reliability. For OEMs navigating the rapidly evolving commercial EV market, selecting the appropriate e-powertrain solution is critical. Brogen’s expertise and cutting-edge technologies empower manufacturers to achieve superior efficiency, durability, and cost-effectiveness in their electrification initiatives. Discover our LCV electrification solutions here: https://brogenevsolution.com/light-commercial-vehicle-electrification-solutions/ EV Motors for LCVs: https://brogenevsolution.com/electric-motors-for-lcvs/ eAxle for LCVs: https://brogenevsolution.com/electric-axle-for-light-truck/ EV Battery Solutions for LCVs: https://brogenevsolution.com/ev-battery-solutions-for-lcv/ Business inquiry: contact@BrogenEVSolution.com Contact Us Get in touch with us by sending us an email, using the Whatsapp number below, or filling in the form below. We usually reply within 2 business days. Email: contact@brogenevsolution.com Respond within 1 business day Whatsapp: +8619352173376 Business hours: 9 am to 6 pm, GMT+8, Mon. to Fri. LinkedIn channel Follow us for regular updates > YouTube channel Ev systems introduction & industry insights > ContactFill in the form and we will get in touch with you within 2 business days.Please enable JavaScript in your browser to complete this form.Please enable JavaScript in your browser to complete this form. Name * FirstLast Work Email *Company Name *Your Project Type *– Please select –Car, SUV, MPVBus, coach, trainLCV (pickup truck, light-duty truck,

Selection and Layout of Battery Thermal Management Systems BTMS for Electric Buses
Industry Insight, Public Transportation

Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) for Electric Buses: Selection and Integration Strategy

Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) for Electric Buses: Selection and Integration Strategy This article introduces common types and configurations of battery thermal management systems (BTMS) for electric buses. As a critical component of electric buses, the BTMS acts as a “guardian” for the battery, ensuring its performance, safety, and longevity. Therefore, a thorough understanding of the different BTMS types and layouts is essential for practical applications. 1. Selection of the Battery Thermal Management System (BTMS) for Electric Buses The battery thermal management system (BTMS) for electric buses regulates the battery’s operating temperature through external equipment, ensuring that the battery always functions within an optimal temperature range. For lithium batteries, the ideal working temperature is between 20°C and 35°C. When the temperature is too low, battery capacity decreases, and power performance declines. When the temperature is too high, the risk of self-discharge increases, and internal side reactions become more frequent, reducing the available battery capacity and decreasing its lifespan and efficiency. Battery thermal management involves cooling the battery in summer to prevent irreversible thermal reactions that could cause safety issues. In winter, it heats the battery to maintain charging and discharging performance while preventing lithium plating at the anode, which could lead to internal short circuits. The selection of battery thermal management equipment should be based on the vehicle’s operating conditions and battery placement to meet the thermal management requirements. Ensuring that the battery remains in an optimal “comfort zone” helps improve its lifespan. Below are common battery thermal management solutions for buses. 1.1 Basic Battery Thermal Management System The basic BTMS unit directs air-conditioned cold air into the unit to exchange heat with circulating antifreeze for cooling. For heating, it uses an electric liquid heater to warm the antifreeze, which is then circulated to the battery pack. After cooling or heating, the antifreeze enters the battery compartment to regulate the battery’s temperature, keeping it within the desired range. Compared to independent and non-independent BTMS units, the basic unit is the most cost-effective and simplest system. It is also relatively safe, as it does not use a vapor compression refrigeration cycle. However, since it relies on the vehicle’s air conditioning system for cooling, it requires the installation of a cooling system. Additionally, when the cooling system first starts, the cold air temperature is relatively high, leading to poor initial cooling performance. The cooling power is generally below 2 kW, making this solution suitable for hybrid buses with slow-charging battery packs and low charge/discharge rates. Basic BTMS Unit System Schematic Diagram Basic BTMS Unit System Structure 1.2 Independent Battery Thermal Management System The independent BTMS unit includes its own compressor, condenser, and plate heat exchanger, forming a separate cooling cycle. Cooling is achieved by exchanging heat between low-temperature, low-pressure refrigerant and the circulating antifreeze in the heat exchanger. Heating is done via an electric liquid heater that warms the antifreeze before circulating it to the battery pack. Compared to the non-independent unit, this system has an additional dedicated compressor and condenser, increasing costs. However, since it operates independently, it features simpler control logic and fewer refrigerant connectors, making it relatively safer. The cooling power of an independent unit is generally above 2 kW, making it suitable for hybrid and fully electric buses with fast-charging battery packs and high charge/discharge rates. Independent BTMS Unit System Schematic Diagram 1.3 Non-Independent Battery Thermal Management System The non-independent BTMS utilizes an external cooling system, where low-temperature, low-pressure refrigerant produced by another cooling device exchanges heat with circulating antifreeze in a plate heat exchanger. Heating is performed using an electric liquid heater, which warms the antifreeze before it circulates to the battery pack. Since it shares the vehicle’s cooling system, it requires the installation of a refrigeration system. Additionally, due to the variable-frequency compressor’s minimum frequency limit, the power output is relatively high, typically above 6 kW. Compared to an independent unit, this system has a more complex control logic due to potential conflicts between battery thermal management and vehicle air conditioning demands. The non-independent unit is suitable for fully electric buses with fast-charging battery packs and high charge/discharge rates. Non-Independent Unit System Schematic Diagram 2. Layout of Battery Thermal Management System for Electric Buses 2.1 Basic Principles for BTMS Layout The layout of battery thermal management equipment is closely related to the placement of the battery itself. The following principles should be followed when arranging the equipment: Proximity to the battery placement – The thermal management equipment should be installed as close as possible to the battery, whether the battery is mounted on the top, bottom, or rear of the vehicle. At the same time, potential disadvantages associated with the chosen placement should be minimized. Installation requirements for different types of equipment – For independent battery thermal management systems, vibration-damping rubber pads should be added during installation. The condenser’s air intake and exhaust must remain unobstructed to prevent air recirculation. For basic thermal management systems, cold air should be drawn from the vehicle’s refrigeration system. The air intake point should be positioned as close as possible to the evaporator outlet of the main cooling system. Coolant circulation considerations – The water pump inlet for circulating antifreeze through the battery box’s cooling plate should be located as close as possible to the expansion tank, which maintains system pressure and allows antifreeze refilling. The expansion tank must be placed at the highest point of the battery cooling system. Additionally, an air vent pipe should be included to remove air released during heating or cooling, preventing difficulties in adding antifreeze. Cooling circuit for multiple battery groups – To minimize temperature differences between different battery packs, the cooling circuit should be arranged in a parallel configuration. Each individual branch should not exceed three battery boxes per loop. PTC Electric Liquid Heater Placement – If a PTC electric liquid heater is installed, it should be positioned downstream of the water pump at a lower point in the cooling circuit. It must not be placed at the highest point of the coolant loop. Optimization

battery thermal management system for electric bus
Public Transportation, Technologies

Battery Thermal Management for Electric Bus: An Overview

Battery Thermal Management for Electric Buses: An Overview This article explores the structure and working principles of common battery thermal management in battery electric buses (BEB), offering valuable insights for their design. The performance of the traction battery system is a key factor in a battery electric bus’s overall efficiency, range, and reliability. Since battery temperature directly affects performance, lifespan, and safety, a well-designed thermal management system is crucial for optimizing operation and ensuring long-term durability. 1. Different Types of Battery Thermal Management Effective battery thermal management ensures optimal performance and safety by regulating temperature under varying conditions. This includes cooling the battery during high temperatures to prevent overheating and heating it in low temperatures to maintain efficiency and reliability. 1.1 Battery Cooling Methods Battery cooling is essential for maintaining performance and safety in electric buses. The most common cooling methods for EV  batteries include natural air cooling, forced air cooling, liquid cooling, and direct refrigerant cooling. The air cooling method features a simple structure, lightweight design, low cost, and no risks of harmful gas accumulation or liquid leakage. However, its drawbacks include low heat dissipation efficiency, difficulty in sealing design, and poor dustproof and waterproof performance. Depending on whether additional devices are used to introduce cooling air, the air cooling system is divied into natural air cooling and forced air cooling:  Natural Air Cooling & Forced Air Cooling Natural Air Cooling: It’s a method of utilizing the wind generated by the vehicle’s movement to flow through a diversion pipe and directly cool the battery pack. This approach requires no auxiliary motors, offers a simple structure, and is easy to use. However, the cooling airflow is subject to instability due to fluctuations in vehicle speed, resulting in variable cooling performance. Additionally, air has low heat capacity and thermal conductivity, which limits the efficiency of heat transfer. Natural air cooling is best suited for vehicles with low discharge rates and minimal heat generation in their power batteries. Forced Air Cooling: It directly introduces cabin air, natural air, or external convection air into the battery compartment to cool the battery pack. This cooling method has relatively poor performance, the largest system volume, and a high risk of water ingress. However, it is lightweight, easy to control, has low energy consumption, relatively low system costs, is relatively easy to implement, and offers high process reliability. Liquid Cooling Liquid Cooling: It utilizes convective heat transfer through a coolant to dissipate the heat generated by the battery, effectively lowering its temperature. It’s currently the most widely adopted cooling solution in the market. Compared to air cooling, liquid cooling systems – using coolant as the heat transfer medium – offer significantly higher specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity. Additionally, in low-temperature environments, the system can also provide heating for the battery pack. However, the primary drawbacks of liquid cooling include increased structural complexity, added battery system weight, and higher overall system costs. Direct Refrigerant Cooling Direct Refrigerant Cooling: Also known as direct cooling or refrigerant-based cooling, integrates the battery thermal management system with the vehicle’s air conditioning system. In this approach, an evaporator in the refrigerant loop functions as the battery’s direct cooling plate, simplifying the overall system. It minimizes heat exchange losses, resulting in a rapid thermal response. And the design eliminates the need for a separate battery cooling loop, reducing components like the coolant pump, piping, and chiller, leading to a more space-efficeint, lightweight thermal management system. A comparison of different cooling methods is as follows: Comparison Item Natural Cooling Forced Air Cooling Liquid Cooling Direct Cooling Working Principle Natural air convection Forced air convection Forced liquid convection Phase-change cooling Heat Transfer Coefficient (W/m²K) 5-25 25-100 500-15000 2500-25000 Heat Dissipation Efficiency Poor High High Very High Temperature Uniformity Good without external heat sources, otherwise poor Poor (especially at inlet and outlet) Good Good Installation Environment Adaptability Poor (requires external insulation and ventilation) Fair (dependent on inlet and outlet air structure) Good Good Suitability for High/Low Temperatures Poor (conflict between auxiliary heating/insulation and heat dissipation) Poor (conflict between auxiliary heating/insulation and heat dissipation) Good (capable of both heating and cooling) Poor (requires additional auxiliary heating, difficult to control heat pump) Complexity Simplest Moderate Complex Complex Energy Consumption None High Low (easy to implement insulation) Low (high efficiency) Cost Low Relatively High High (can be optimized) High 1.2 Battery Heating Methods To maintain optimal performance in cold conditions, EV traction batteries require heating. The most common battery heating methods include: Integrated Electric Heating Film: A thin electric heating film integrated inside the battery pack directly heats the battery cells. Performance: Above 0°C: works well, requires no additional space, consumes no energy when inactive, and is cost-effective. Below 0°C: heating efficiency drops significantly, making it unsuitable for extremely cold environments. Advantages: Space savings and easy to implement; low system cost and no additional control needed. Limitations: Ineffective in freezing temperatures, leading to limited adoption in colder climates. Liquid-Based Heating System: An electric liquid heater is integrated into the thermal management system’s coolant circuit to heat the antifreeze, which then circulates to warm the battery pack. Performance: Provides efficient and uniform heating, making it the preferred method in colder regions. Advantages: Compact system design with minimal space requirements; mature and reliable technology with well-established control mechanisms; high heating efficiency, ensuring stable battery operation in low temperatures Limitations: Higher system cost compared to electric heating films. Due to its efficiency and reliability, liquid heating is currently the most commonly used battery heating solution. Comparison Item Electric Heating Film Liquid Heating Heating Characteristics Constant power heating Convective/conductive heating Space constraints (Thickness) 0.3~2 mm Integrated into the liquid heating system Heating Rate 0.15~0.3°C/min 0.3~0.6°C/min Uniformity (Battery Temperature Difference) ≈8°C ≤5°C 2. Structure and Working Principles of Battery Thermal Management Systems To maintain optimal performance and longevity, EV traction batteries in electric buses operate within an ideal temperature range of 25°C ± 5°C, regardless of seasonal variations. In winter, the battery thermal management system heats the coolant to maintain the target

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